Database - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Database Software" redirects here. For the computer program, see Europress. A database is an organized collection of data.[1] It is the collection of schemas, tables, queries, reports, views and other objects. The data are typically organized to model aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring information, such as modelling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that supports finding a hotel with vacancies. Of database systems 5th edition solution manual | database systems. Total PDF files : 317.442.207. Don't forget to bookmark us (press CTRL + D) Search Keyword. Sheth A. Transforming Big Data into Smart Data: Deriving Value via Harnessing Volume, Variety & Velocity Using Semantics and Semantic Web. Melbourne, Australia: RMIT. SYLLABUS B.Sc.-I (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) PAPER- I Information Theory and Digital Electronics UNIT- I: Information- Definition, Characteristics & Interpretation, Data. DBMS by Korth 1. Edited by Foxit PDF EditorCopyrightdddddd (c) by Foxit Software Company, 2004For Evaluation Only. 2. Edited by Foxit PDF EditorCopyright. A database is an organized collection of data. [1] It is the collection of schemas, tables, queries, reports, views and other objects. The data are typically. Errors and Additions. Please bring any errors to our notice, using the chapter number and the slide title to identify the slide. If you have any talks that you would. The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (the aapd) had its annual meeting in Boston last weekend. This is the annual gathering of pediatric dentists, staff. Chapter: Exercises: Last Updated: 1. Introduction : pdf: Mar 20, 2010 : Part 1: Relational Databases : 2. Relational Model : pdf: Mar 20, 2010 : 3. SQL : pdf: Mar 20. Database System Concepts Sixth Edition Avi Silberschatz Henry F. Korth S. Sudarshan. We provide a set of slides to accompany each chapter. Click on the links below to. A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general- purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases. Well- known DBMSs include My. SQL, Postgre. SQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase and IBM DB2. A database is not generally portable across different DBMSs, but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such as SQL and ODBC or JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS. Database management systems are often classified according to the database model that they support; the most popular database systems since the 1. SQL language.[disputed– discuss] Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a 'database'. Terminology and overview[edit]Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to these data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized. Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it. Outside the world of professional information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index). This article is concerned only with databases where the size and usage requirements necessitate use of a database management system.[2]Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups: Data definition – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that define the organization of the data. Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data.[3]Retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database.[4]Administration – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected system failure.[5]Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model.[6] "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database.[7]Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high- speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitaskingkernel with built- in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions.[citation needed] Since DBMSs comprise a significant economicalmarket, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans.[8]Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone), the query language(s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery), and their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability, resilience, and security. Applications[edit]Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software). Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or economic models. Examples of database applications include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems, computerized parts inventory systems, and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in a database. General- purpose and special- purpose DBMSs[edit]A DBMS has evolved into a complex software system and its development typically requires thousands of person- years of development effort.[9] Some general- purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1. General- purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity. However, the fact that their development cost can be spread over a large number of users means that they are often the most cost- effective approach. However, a general- purpose DBMS is not always the optimal solution: in some cases a general- purpose DBMS may introduce unnecessary overhead. Therefore, there are many examples of systems that use special- purpose databases. A common example is an email system that performs many of the functions of a general- purpose DBMS such as the insertion and deletion of messages composed of various items of data or associating messages with a particular email address; but these functions are limited to what is required to handle email and don't provide the user with all of the functionality that would be available using a general- purpose DBMS. Many other databases have application software that accesses the database on behalf of end- users, without exposing the DBMS interface directly. Application programmers may use a wire protocol directly, or more likely through an application programming interface. Database designers and database administrators interact with the DBMS through dedicated interfaces to build and maintain the applications' databases, and thus need some more knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate and the DBMSs' external interfaces and tuning parameters. History[edit]Following the technology progress in the areas of processors, computer memory, computer storage and computer networks, the sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude. The development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational,[1. SQL/relational, and post- relational. The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model, epitomized by IBM's IMS system, and the CODASYL model (network model), implemented in a number of products such as IDMS. The relational model, first proposed in 1. Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger- style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid- 1. DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1. 99. IBM DB2, Oracle, My. SQL and Microsoft SQL Server are the top DBMS.[1. The dominant database language, standardised SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models.[citation needed]Object databases were developed in the 1. The next generation of post- relational databases in the late 2. No. SQL databases, introducing fast key- value stores and document- oriented databases. A competing "next generation" known as New. SQL databases attempted new implementations that retained the relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of No. SQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs. DBMS[edit]. Basic structure of navigational CODASYL database model. The introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct- access storage (disks and drums) from the mid- 1. The term represented a contrast with the tape- based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing. The Oxford English Dictionary cites[1. System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term "data- base" in a specific technical sense. As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general- purpose database systems emerged; by the mid- 1. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the "Database Task Group" within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1. 97. 1 the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the "CODASYL approach", and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market. The CODASYL approach relied on the "manual" navigation of a linked data set which was formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three methods: Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key, typically implemented by hashing)Navigating relationships (called sets) from one record to another. Scanning all the records in a sequential order.
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A QUALITY OF SERVICE MESSAGING SUBSTRATE_网络管理资料下载_网络工程资料下载_希赛网. FM- QOS: A QUALITY OF SERVICE MESSAGING SUBSTRATEFOR ASYNCHRONOUS LOCAL- AREA NETWORKSWITH HARDWARE- LEVEL NETWORK FEEDBACK本资料共包含以下附件:FM- QOS: A QUALITY OF SERVICE MESSAGING SUBSTRATE. Quality of service - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Quality of service (Qo. S) is the overall performance of a telephony or computer network, particularly the performance seen by the users of the network. To quantitatively measure quality of service, several related aspects of the network service are often considered, such as error rates, bit rate, throughput, transmission delay, availability, jitter, etc. Quality of service is particularly important for the transport of traffic with special requirements. In particular, much technology has been developed to allow computer networks to become as useful as telephone networks for audio conversations, as well as supporting new applications with even stricter service demands. Definitions[edit]In the field of telephony, quality of service was defined by the ITU in 1. Quality of service comprises requirements on all the aspects of a connection, such as service response time, loss, signal- to- noise ratio, crosstalk, echo, interrupts, frequency response, loudness levels, and so on. A subset of telephony Qo. Cisco Catalyst QoS-Quality of Service in Campus Networks.pdf anole12032009-09-22 上传 Cisco Catalyst QoS-Quality of Service in Campus Networks.pdf 资源积分: 1分. QoS - Quality of Service indigoo.com 3. QoS at layer 2.5: MPLS MultiProtocol Label Switching. Quality of Service (QoS) Networking 46-5 Congestion Management Tools CQ: Guaranteeing Bandwidth CQ was designed to allow various applications or organizations to. . rather than the achieved service quality. Quality of service is the ability to. service quality. [3] High QoS is often confused with a. Enterprise QoS Solution Reference Network Design Guide Version 3.3. End-to-End QoS Network Design: Quality of Service for Rich-Media & Cloud Networks, 2nd Edition. S is grade of service (Go. S) requirements, which comprises aspects of a connection relating to capacity and coverage of a network, for example guaranteed maximum blocking probability and outage probability.[2]In the field of computer networking and other packet- switched telecommunication networks, the traffic engineering term refers to resource reservation control mechanisms rather than the achieved service quality. Quality of service is the ability to provide different priority to different applications, users, or data flows, or to guarantee a certain level of performance to a data flow. For example, a required bit rate, delay, jitter, packet dropping probability and/or bit error rate may be guaranteed. Quality of service guarantees are important if the network capacity is insufficient, especially for real- time streaming multimedia applications such as voice over IP, online games and IP- TV, since these often require fixed bit rate and are delay sensitive, and in networks where the capacity is a limited resource, for example in cellular data communication. A network or protocol that supports Qo. Cisco Quality of Service (QoS) products manage the delay, jitter, bandwidth, and packet loss parameters on a network. What Is QoS? In this section. QoS Concepts; Uses and Benefits of QoS; Network Technologies and Support for QoS. Related Information; Quality of Service. Internet Quality of Service: an Overview Weibin Zhao, David Olshefski and Henning Schulzrinne. Quality of service (QoS) generally describes the assurance. S may agree on a traffic contract with the application software and reserve capacity in the network nodes, for example during a session establishment phase. During the session it may monitor the achieved level of performance, for example the data rate and delay, and dynamically control scheduling priorities in the network nodes. It may release the reserved capacity during a tear down phase. A best- effort network or service does not support quality of service. An alternative to complex Qo. S control mechanisms is to provide high quality communication over a best- effort network by over- provisioning the capacity so that it is sufficient for the expected peak traffic load. The resulting absence of network congestion eliminates the need for Qo. S mechanisms. Qo. S is sometimes used as a quality measure, with many alternative definitions, rather than referring to the ability to reserve resources. Quality of service sometimes refers to the level of quality of service, i. High Qo. S is often confused with a high level of performance or achieved service quality, for example high bit rate, low latency and low bit error probability. An alternative and disputable definition of Qo. S, used especially in application layer services such as telephony and streaming video, is requirements on a metric that reflects or predicts the subjectively experienced quality. In this context, Qo. S is the acceptable cumulative effect on subscriber satisfaction of all imperfections affecting the service. Other terms with similar meaning are the quality of experience (Qo. E) subjective business concept, the required “user perceived performance”,[4] the required “degree of satisfaction of the user” or the targeted “number of happy customers”. Examples of measures and measurement methods are mean opinion score (MOS), perceptual speech quality measure (PSQM) and perceptual evaluation of video quality (PEVQ). See also Subjective video quality. History[edit]Conventional Internet routers and LAN switches operate on a best effort basis. This equipment is less expensive, less complex and faster and thus more popular than competing more complex technologies that provided Qo. S mechanisms. There were four “Type of service” bits and three “Precedence” bits provided in each IP packet header, but they were not generally respected. These bits were later re- defined as Differentiated services code points (DSCP). With the advent of IPTV and IP telephony, Qo. S mechanisms are increasingly available to the end user.[citation needed]A number of attempts for layer 2 technologies that add Qo. S tags to the data have gained popularity in the past. Examples are frame relay, asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) (a technique between layer 2 and 3). Despite these network technologies remaining in use today, this kind of network lost attention after the advent of Ethernet networks. Today Ethernet is, by far, the most popular layer 2 technology. Ethernet uses 8. 02. Qualities of traffic[edit]In packet- switched networks, quality of service is affected by various factors, which can be divided into “human” and “technical” factors. Human factors include: stability of service, availability of service, delays, user information. Technical factors include: reliability, scalability, effectiveness, maintainability, grade of service, etc.[5]Many things can happen to packets as they travel from origin to destination, resulting in the following problems as seen from the point of view of the sender and receiver: Low throughput. Due to varying load from disparate users sharing the same network resources, the bit rate (the maximum throughput) that can be provided to a certain data stream may be too low for realtime multimedia services if all data streams get the same scheduling priority. Dropped packets. The routers might fail to deliver (drop) some packets if their data loads are corrupted, or the packets arrive when the router buffers are already full. The receiving application may ask for this information to be retransmitted, possibly causing severe delays in the overall transmission. Errors. Sometimes packets are corrupted due to bit errors caused by noise and interference, especially in wireless communications and long copper wires. The receiver has to detect this and, just as if the packet was dropped, may ask for this information to be retransmitted. Latency. It might take a long time for each packet to reach its destination, because it gets held up in long queues, or it takes a less direct route to avoid congestion. This is different from throughput, as the delay can build up over time, even if the throughput is almost normal. In some cases, excessive latency can render an application such as Vo. IP or online gaming unusable. Jitter. Packets from the source will reach the destination with different delays. A packet's delay varies with its position in the queues of the routers along the path between source and destination and this position can vary unpredictably. This variation in delay is known as jitter and can seriously affect the quality of streaming audio and/or video. Out- of- order delivery. When a collection of related packets is routed through a network, different packets may take different routes, each resulting in a different delay. The result is that the packets arrive in a different order than they were sent. This problem requires special additional protocols responsible for rearranging out- of- order packets to an isochronous state once they reach their destination. This is especially important for video and Vo. IP streams where quality is dramatically affected by both latency and lack of sequence. Applications[edit]A defined quality of service may be desired or required for certain types of network traffic, for example: These types of service are called inelastic, meaning that they require a certain minimum bit rate and a certain maximum latency to function. By contrast, elastic applications can take advantage of however much or little bandwidth is available. Bulk file transfer applications that rely on TCP are generally elastic. Mechanisms[edit]Circuit switched networks, especially those intended for voice transmission, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or GSM, have Qo. S in the core protocol and do not need additional procedures to achieve it. Shorter data units and built- in Qo. S were some of the unique selling points of ATM for applications such as video on demand. When the expense of mechanisms to provide Qo. S is justified, network customers and providers can enter into a contractual agreement termed a service level agreement (SLA) which specifies guarantees for the ability of a network/protocol to give guaranteed performance/throughput/latency bounds based on mutually agreed measures, usually by prioritizing traffic. In other approaches, resources are reserved at each step on the network for the call as it is set up. Over- provisioning[edit]An alternative to complex Qo. S control mechanisms is to provide high quality communication by generously over- provisioning a network so that capacity is based on peak traffic load estimates. This approach is simple for networks with predictable peak loads. The performance is reasonable for many applications. This might include demanding applications that can compensate for variations in bandwidth and delay with large receive buffers, which is often possible for example in video streaming. Over- provisioning can be of limited use, however, in the face of transport protocols (such as TCP) that over time exponentially increase the amount of data placed on the network until all available bandwidth is consumed and packets are dropped. Such greedy protocols tend to increase latency and packet loss for all users. I want to convert HTML (having javascript) to PDF. How can I do that? I just want to show what is being shown in web page. I am displaying a gantt chart that is. Pdfcrowd is a Web/HTML to PDF online service. Convert HTML to PDF online in the browser or in your PHP, Python, Ruby.NET, Java apps via the REST API. Using itext to convert HTML to PDFThe answer to your question is actually two- fold. First of all you need to specify what you intend to do with the rendered HTML: save it to a new PDF file, or use it within another rendering context (i. The former is relatively easily accomplished using the Flying Saucer framework, which can be found here: https: //github. 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For some people PDF files are too slow, too large or too difficult to edit. PDF files ignore. How to convert HTML to PDF using HiQPDF. Pre-Conference Workshop: Learn AngularJS and MVC by D J; WHY Developers Should Market Themselves. Does anyone know if it is possible to convert a HTML page (url) to a PDF using itext? If the answer is 'no' than that is OK as well since I will stop wasting my time. Convert Html Files to PDF Documents Instantly. Thank you for using our html to pdf online converter which is completely free. Simply copy your html code and paste it. Handbook Of X-ray Spectrometry Pdf reliably extract net X-ray intensities from ED spectra (2). (2) P. Van Espen and K. Janssens, Spectrum Evaluation, in: The Handbook of X-ray Spectrometry. Abstract: The Active Particle-induced X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) is. X ray spectrometry Download x ray spectrometry or read online here in PDF or EPUB. Please click button to get x ray spectrometry book now. All books are in clear copy here, and all files are secure so don't worry about it. This site is like a library, you could find. X-Ray Spectrometry (X Ray Spectrom) Publisher: Microbeam Analysis Society, Wiley Journal description. Publisher's version/PDF cannot be used Publisher source must be acknowledged with citation Must link to publisher version with set statement (see. Other types of X-ray spectroscopy X-ray absorption spectroscopy X-ray magnetic circular dichroism See also X-Ray Spectrometry (journal) Spectroscopy Infrared FT-IR. Special Issue: X-ray Spectrometry in Forensic Science Receive alerts when issues publish – Click on “Get New Content Alerts” Recently Published Articles.X- ray spectroscopy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. X- ray spectroscopy is a gathering name for several spectroscopic techniques for characterization of materials by using x- ray excitation. Characteristic X- ray Spectroscopy[edit]When an electron from the inner shell of an atom is excited by the energy of a photon, it moves to a higher energy level, when it returns a low energy level the energy which it previously gained by the excitation is emitted as a photon which has a wavelength that is characteristic for the element (there could be several of characteristic wavelengths per element). Analysis of the X- ray emission spectrum produces qualitative results about elemental composition of the specimen. Comparison of spectrum of the specimen with spectra of standards of known composition produces quantitative results (after some mathematical corrections for absorption, fluorescence and atomic number). X- rays can be excited by a high- energy beam of charged particles such as electrons (as in electron microscope) or protons (see PIXE), or a beam of X- rays (see X- ray fluorescence, or XRF). These methods enable elements from the entire periodic table to be analyzed, with the exception of H, He and Li. In electron microscopy electron beam excites X- rays; there are two main techniques for analysis of spectrum of characteristic X- ray radiation: Energy- dispersive X- ray spectroscopy and Wavelength dispersive X- ray spectroscopy. Energy- dispersive X- ray spectroscopy (EDS)[edit]In an energy- dispersive X- ray spectrometer, a semiconductor detector measures energy of incoming photons. To maintain detector integrity and resolution it should be cooled with liquid nitrogen or by Peltier cooling. EDS is widely employed in electron microscopes (where not spectroscopy but imaging is a main task) and in cheaper and/or portable XRF units. Wavelength dispersive X- ray spectroscopy (WDS)[edit]In a wavelength dispersive X- ray spectrometer the single crystal diffracts the photons (Bragg's law) which are collected by a detector. Without any motion there will be just one wavelength detected. By moving crystal and detector, a wide region of spectrum is observed (to collect all parts of spectrum three of four different single crystals may be needed). In contrast to EDS, WDS method is a method of sequential spectrum acquisition. While WDS is slower than EDS and more sensitive to positioning specimen in the spectrometer, it has superior spectral resolution and sensitivity. WDS is widely used in microprobes (where X- ray microanalysis is the main task) and in XRF. INTERPLANER SPACING,WAVELENGTH of incident x ray by using BRAGG's law. X- ray emission spectroscopy[edit]William Lawrence Bragg and William Henry Bragg, who were the 1. Nobel Prize Winners, were the original pioneers in developing X- ray emission spectroscopy. He measured the X- ray wavelengths of many elements to high precision, using high- energy electrons as excitation source. He also painstakingly produced numerous diamond- ruled glass diffraction gratings for his spectrometers. Intense and wavelength- tunable X- rays are now typically generated with synchrotrons. In a material, the X- rays may suffer an energy loss compared to the incoming beam. This energy loss of the re- emerging beam reflects an internal excitation of the atomic system, an X- ray analogue to the well- known Raman spectroscopy that is widely used in the optical region. In the X- ray region there is sufficient energy to probe changes in the electronic state (transitions between orbitals; this is in contrast with the optical region, where the energy loss is often due to changes in the state of the rotational or vibrational degrees of freedom). For instance, in the ultra soft X- ray region (below about 1 ke. V), crystal field excitations give rise to the energy loss. The photon- in- photon- out process may be thought of as a scattering event. When the x- ray energy corresponds to the binding energy of a core- level electron, this scattering process is resonantly enhanced by many orders of magnitude. This type of X- ray emission spectroscopy is often referred to as resonant inelastic X- ray scattering (RIXS). Due to the wide separation of orbital energies of the core levels, it is possible to select a certain atom of interest. The small spatial extent of core level orbitals forces the RIXS process to reflect the electronic structure in close vicinity of the chosen atom. Thus RIXS experiments give valuable information about the local electronic structure of complex systems, and theoretical calculations are relatively simple to perform. Instrumentation[edit]There exist several efficient designs for analyzing an X- ray emission spectrum in the ultra soft X- ray region. The figure of merit for such instruments is the spectral throughput, i. Usually, it is possible to change the parameters within a certain range while keeping their product constant. Grating spectrometers[edit]Usually X- ray diffraction in spectrometers is achieved on crystals, but in Grating spectrometers, the X- rays emerging from a sample must pass a source- defining slit, then optical elements (mirrors and/or gratings) disperse them by diffraction according to their wavelength and, finally, a detector is placed at their focal points. Spherical grating mounts[edit]Henry Augustus Rowland (1. Reflectivity of X- rays is low regardless of the used material and therefore grazing incidence upon the grating is necessary. X- ray beams impinging on a smooth surface at a few degrees glancing angle of incidence undergo external total reflection which is taken advantage of to enhance the instrumental efficiency substantially. Denote by R the radius of a spherical grating. Imagine a circle with half the radius R tangent to the center of the grating surface. This small circle is called the Rowland circle. If the entrance slit is anywhere on this circle, then a beam passing the slit and striking the grating will be split into a specularly reflected beam, and beams of all diffraction orders, that come into focus at certain points on the same circle. Plane grating mounts[edit]Similar to optical spectrometers, a plane grating spectrometer first needs optics that turns the divergent rays emitted by the x- ray source into a parallel beam. This may be achieved by using a parabolic mirror. The parallel rays emerging from this mirror strike a plane grating (with constant groove distance) at the same angle and are diffracted according to their wavelength. A second parabolic mirror then collects the diffracted rays at a certain angle and creates an image on a detector. A spectrum within a certain wavelength range can be recorded simultaneously by using a two- dimensional position- sensitive detector such as a microchannel photomultiplier plate or an X- ray sensitive CCD chip (film plates are also possible to use). Interferometers[edit]Instead of using the concept of multiple beam interference that gratings produce, the two rays may simply interfere. By recording the intensity of two such co- linearly at some fixed point and changing their relative phase one obtains an intensity spectrum as a function of path length difference. One can show that this is equivalent to a Fourier transformed spectrum as a function of frequency. The highest recordable frequency of such a spectrum is dependent on the minimum step size chosen in the scan and the frequency resolution (i. The latter feature allows a much more compact design for achieving high resolution than for a grating spectrometer because x- ray wavelengths are small compared to attainable path length differences. Early history of X- ray Spectroscopy in the U. S.[edit]Philips Gloeilampen Fabrieken, headquartered in Eindhoven in the Netherlands, got its start as a manufacturer of light bulbs, but quickly evolved until it is now one of the leading manufacturers of electrical apparatus, electronics, and related products including X- ray equipment. It also has had one of the world's largest R& D labs. In 1. 94. 1 Holland was overrun by Hitler’s Germany. Somehow the company was able to transfer a substantial sum of money to a company that it set up as an R& D laboratory in an estate in Irvington on the Hudson in NY. As an extension to their work on light bulbs the Dutch company had developed a line of X- ray tubes for medical applications that were conveniently powered by transformers. The X- ray tubes could also be used in scientific X- ray instrumentations but there was very little commercial demand for the latter. So, the management decided to try to develop this market and set up development groups in their research labs in both Holland and the U. S. They hired Dr. Ira Duffendack, a professor at University of Michigan and a world expert on infrared research to head the lab and to hire a staff. In 1. 95. 1 he hired Dr. David Miller as Assistant Director of Research. Dr. Miller had done research on X- ray instrumentation at Washington University in St. Louis. Dr. Duffendack also hired Dr. Bill Parish, a well known researcher in X- ray diffraction, to head up the section of the lab on X- ray instrumental development. X- ray diffraction units were widely used in academic research departments to do crystal analysis. An essential component of a diffraction unit was a very accurate angle measuring device known as a goniometer. Such units were not commercially available, so each investigator had do try to make their own. Dr Parrish decided this would be a good device to use to generate an instrumental market, so his group designed and learned how to manufacture a goniometer. This market developed quickly and, with the readily available tubes and power supplies, a complete diffraction unit was made available and was successfully marketed. The U. S. management did not want the laboratory to be converted to a manufacturing unit so it decided to set up a commercial unit to further develop the X- ray instrumentation market. Robot Check. Enter the characters you see below. Sorry, we just need to make sure you're not a robot. Pattern Magic by Tomoko Nakamichi. 'Pattern Magic. Pattern Magic. Tomoko Nakamichi. Paperback. This item: Pattern Magic 2 by Tomoko Nakamichi Paperback $17.60. In Stock. Ships from and sold by Amazon.com. FREE Shipping on orders over $25. 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